Health and Safety in Construction

Health and Safety in Construction This chapter begins with a general discussion on the concept of safety before examining the modern concern with workplace health and safety, specifically in the construction industry. To better relate to the scope of this study, it will also review the current workplace safety and health situation in the Singapores construction industry. Subsequently, an overview of the safety legislations and policies undertaken in Singapore to improve construction safety will be investigated. Introduction to Safety Although the term safety is very often used in our everyday life, the concept of safety can have various meanings for different people. According to Oxford Dictionaries Online, safety is defined as the condition of being protected from or unlikely to cause danger, risk or injury. Moreover, as safety is commonly viewed from the perspective of specific injury domains, some injury preventive researchers defined safety as the prevention of crime and violence whereas the others described it as a feeling of being out of danger or as a satisfaction of the basic human physiological needs. Hence, due to the multitude of views on the definition of safety, the World Health Organisation (WHO) Collaborating Centres on Safety Promotion and Injury Prevention has developed an international consensus on the conceptual and operational aspects of safety in 1998 (Nilsen et al., 2004). They have defined safety as a state in which hazards and conditions leading to physical, psychological or material harm are controlled in order to preserve the health and well-being of individuals and the community. This definition of safety contains two dimensions, of which one is objective and can be assessed by measuring behavioural and environmental parameters whereas the other is subjective and can be evaluated according to the feeling of being safe (WHO, 1998). In addition, safety is a resultant of a complex process which integrates humans behaviour and interaction with their physical, social, cultural, technological, political, economic and organisational environment. According to Maurice et al. (2001), the optimum level of safety can only be attained with the presence of four conditions that proved beneficial in defining the domain of safety. Table 2.1 indicates the four basic conditions for safety. Table 2.1 Four basic conditions that define the domain for safety Four Conditions for Safety 1)  A climate of social cohesion, peace and equity between groups that protects human rights and freedoms 2)  The respect of the values of individual and their physical, material and psychological integrity 3)  The prevention and control of injuries and other consequences or harm caused by accidents 4)  The provision of effective measures to cope with undesirable traumatic events Source: Maurice et al. (2001) Workplace Safety and Health (WSH) Before 1880s, there was little interest in work safety and minimal protection for the safety of workers in their workplaces because legislation, precedent and public opinion were all in favour of the management (Pearson, n.d.). Moreover, workplace accidents were perceived to be cheap and were often disregarded because there were no workers compensation laws that protect the interest of workers. Thus, work-related accidents were common then. However, in the late 1900s, workers safety and health in the workplaces begun to receive increasing attention due to the rapid industrialisation of the United States (U.S.) and the establishment of unions that promote the need for safer working conditions. Hence, the high fatalities and injuries rate then compel the federal government to implement various acts to force the industries to reduce the occurrence of work-related accidents or illnesses so as to improve on the safety standards of their workplaces (Aldrich, 2001). Some initiatives of the federal government include passing of the Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA) in 1970 and the enactment of the workers compensation laws. Therefore, tighter employers liability and the steep increase in the cost of accident due to the compensation laws have initiated the employers interest and concern with work safety (Aldrich, 2001; Alton, n.d.). As a result, significant improvement in the workplace safety and health performance can be observed as fatalities rate in the U.S. declines from 27 deaths per 100,000 workers in 1950 to 3.5 in 2011 respectively (BLS, 2012; Kaufman, 1997). The safety performance in British industry had also improved significantly since the introduction of the Health and Safety at Work Act (HSWA) in 1974 as the fatalities rate has decreased from 2.9 per 100,000 workers in 1974 to 0.5 in 2011 (HSE, n.d.). Like OSHA, HSWA is the primary piece of legislation covering occupational health and safety in the United Kingdom (UK). Figure 2.1 illustrates the work-related fatalities rate among different countries. Safety in the Construction Industry Safety has always been a major issue in the construction industry. In many developed and developing countries, the construction industry has constantly been ranked as one of the worst industries in terms of the frequency of fatalities and work-related injuries. Unlike the other industries where it mostly consists of a stationary fabrication setting with little changes in working procedures, equipment and labour force, the working environment in the construction industry is generally complex and ever-changing. This is due to the multidisciplinary and multitasked aspects of the parties involved in the project and also the use of sophisticated plants, equipment and construction methods (Teo, Ling, Chong, 2005). Thus, this highly differentiated and unstructured nature of the construction industry makes safety management extremely challenging (Gambatese, Hinze, Haas, 1997; Lingard, 2012; Zhang, Teizer, Lee, Eastman, Venugopal, 2012). Many research and studies over the years have attemp ted to look into improving construction safety using various concepts such as designing for safety (Gangolells, Casals, Forcada, Roca, Fuertes, 2010), HR practices (Lai, 2009; Lai, Liu, Ling, 2011) and BIM technologies (Azhar, Nadeem, Mok, Leung, 2008; Kiviniemi, Sulankivi, Kà ¤hkà ¶nen, Mà ¤kelà ¤, Merivirta, 2011; Qi, 2011; Zhang et al., 2012) For instance, the Britain authorities have long recognised that safety should be addressed from the very start of a project and they are the first to introduce the Construction (Design and Management) Regulation in 1994 and revised in 2007 respectively. This regulation places duties on clients, designers and contractors for consideration of safety issues from design through the demolition stage of a project (Hecker Gambatese, 2003). According to Gibb (2002), this regulation has lead to an increase in the profile of construction safety among designers in several European Union (EU) countries. Additionally, Australia has also introduced the Model WHS Regulation 2011 whereby have to provide a Safe Design Report that specify the hazards relating to the design of the structure to the person carrying out the construction work (Safe Design Australia, 2011). Therefore, good safety planning and management throughout the project life cycle become an essential prerequisite for most construction projects because without a thorough understanding of safety issues on site, undesirable work-related accidents will occur. This will then incur additional costs, unnecessary project delays and in the worst situation, the loss of lives (Lai et al., 2011). Therefore, the next section will attempt to understand the different safety issues on sites by first identifying the various root causes of accidents. Causes of Accidents According to Teo (2009), accidents are unintentional and undesirable events that can cause pain, suffering, damage and injury to the affected person(s) or property, if not a combination of both. While not all work-related accidents will cause physical injuries or damages, the occurrence of any accidents on site will definitely challenge the quality of the construction site operation. Therefore, there is a need to understand the various causes influencing safety performance in the construction industry so as to better develop strategies to tackle this concerning issue. A review of the literature on construction safety reveals that much research efforts have been directed to understand the factors and causes that can influence construction accidents (Abdelhamid Everett, 2000; Hamid, Majid, Singh, 2008; Hughes Ferrett, 2008; Suraji, Duff, Peckitt, 2001). Many types of theories have been developed throughout the decades to understand the accident causation factors. The earliest research can be traced back into the 1930s were Heinrich (1931) had pioneered the accident causation theories by developing the five-domino model of causation. The domino theory had been the foundation work of many other models that were developed by other researchers thereafter. According to Ridley (1976), most of the accidents on site are either caused by unsafe acts, unsafe conditions or frequently a combination of both. An unsafe act refers to a violation of an accepted safety procedures which then permits the occurrence of an accident whereas an unsafe condition refers to a hazardous physical condition or circumstance that are in violation of contemporary safety standards. Table 2.2 present the development of different theories that were developed to understand the accident causation factors. Table 2.2 Development of different models to understand the accident causation factors Types Characteristic of Model Model / Theory Authors Accident Causation Models Understand the various accident causation factors Develop tools for better accident prevention programme Domino Theory Henrich (1932) Multiple Causation Model Petersen (1971) Stairstep Model Adams (1976) ARCTM: Construction Model Abdelhamid Everett (2000) Behaviour Models Studies the tendency of humans to make errors under various situation and environment conditions Accidents are mainly a result of human unsafe characteristic only Accident proneness theory Accident (1983) Goals freedom alertness theory Kerr (1957) Motivation reward satisfaction Petersen (1975) Sociological theory of accidents Dwyer and Raftery (1991) Human Factor Models Holds human error the main cause of accidents Unlike the behaviour model, the responsibility not only fall on human unsafe characteristic alone The responsibility also fall on the design of workplace, which does not take into consideration the limitation of human Ferrel theory Ferrel (1977) Human-error causation model Petersen (1982) McClay model McClay (1989) DeJoy model DeJoy (1990) Source: Abdelhamid and Everett (2000) To tailor to the need of the construction industry in identifying the root cause of accidents, Abdelhamid and Everett (2000) had developed an Accident Root Causes Tracing Model (ARCTM) after further development and synthesis from various existing accident causation models. ARCTM proposed that unsafe conditions can occur before or after the start of an activity and they can either be caused by human-related or nonhuman-related factors. Table 2.3 illustrates the different causes of unsafe conditions that might lead to accidents. Similar to that proposed by Abdelhamid and Everett (2000) and Suraji et al. (2001), Toole (2002) has also tried to identify and attribute the basic root causes of construction accidents to factors such as lack of proper training, poor enforcement of safety, use of unsafe equipment, methods or sequencing, unsafe site conditions and a poor attitude towards safety. The aforementioned are just some of the many studies undertaken by researchers in an attempt to identify the root causes of work-related accidents so as to develop better preventive strategies (Hill, 2003). Even though there has been a significant improvement in the safety performance of the construction industry as compared to the past, more has to be done to further reduce the fatalities and work-related injuries frequency rate. Table 2.3 Main causes of unsafe conditions which can lead to accidents Main Causes of Unsafe Conditions Human Factors Management action or inaction Worker or co-workers unsafe acts Fail to provide proper or adequate personal protective equipment Violate workplace standards Insufficient ventilation Poor housekeeping Poor design Sabotaging equipment Unauthorised operation of equipment Insufficient rest while working Removing safety device Source: Abdelhamid and Everett (2000) Construction Safety in Singapore The construction industry in Singapore has been one of the fastest growing industries since Singapore embarked on her various industrialisation programme in the early 1960s. However, the safety situation in the industry then deteriorated so drastically that the government had to introduce the Factories Act in 1973 to regulate occupational safety and health in Singapore. Since then, Singapores statutory OSH regime was governed by the Factories Act. However, due to the high-profile and fatal accident that took place in Nicoll Highway in 2004, this had called attention to the need for a reform of the current legislative approach to OSH (Teh, 2006; Teo, 2009). This has therefore led to the unveiling of a new Workplace Safety and Health (WSH) framework in 2005 and the introduction of the WSH Act in 2006, which will repeal and replace the former Factories Act. The new WSH Act became the key legal instrument for the WSH framework and it aims to cultivate good safety and health practices among all individuals in their workplaces. Additionally, WSH 2015 Strategy was developed concurrently so as to complement with the new framework. This strategy aims to halve the workplace fatality rate from 4.9 fatalities per 100,000 workers in 2004 to 2.5 by 2015. As a result of the dynamic and changing WSH landscape, a full-fledged industry-led WSH Council was established in 2008 and a new national target was developed by identifying enhancements to the previous WSH 2015 Strategy. This new strategy, named WSH 2018 aims to achieve an even more challenging goal, which is to reduce the fatality rate to less than 1.8 fatalities per 100,000 employed workers by 2018 (WSH2018, 2009). With the introduction of WSH Council, WSH Council (Construction Landscape) Committee was formed and Implementing WSH 2018 for Construction Industry was developed specifically to guide the efforts of the construction industry to achieve better WSH performance. Following these efforts to increase the safety performance in the construction industry, it is noted that there is a remarkable improvement in the safety performance in 2011. According to the WSH Report 2011, construction industry was the only one that saw a drop in fatality numbers as the fatality rate decreased from 8.1 per 100,000 employed persons in 2010 to 5.3 in 2011, as shown in the Figure 2.2 (WSH, 2011). This is a significant improvement as the fatality rate of 5.3 in 2011 is the lowest-ever since 2006. Furthermore, the number of work-related injuries has also fallen by 22% as compared to 2010 (channelnewsasia, 2012). Despite the positive progression in the safety performance, it still remains as a serious concern as fatality rate continued to account for the highest among all industries in Singapore as shown in Table 2.4. Thus, in order to achieve the targeted result set aside for the construction industry as seen in Figure 2.3, all stakeholders will have to commit themselves to work towards a safe and healthy workplace with a vibrant WSH culture and zero injury (WSH2018Construction, 2010). In addition, more efforts have to be put to prevent falling from height because it remains as the major contributor to fatal accidents (see Figure 2.4). Till date, many studies have been conducted to look into improving construction safety in Singapore. For example, Ling, Ofori, and Teo (2004) have constructed a model to predict the safety level of a construction project site. Moreover, Ling and Teo (2006) have studied the intrinsic and external incentives on increasing worksite safety and found out that there are many personal factor that can affect site safety. Safety Policies and Legislation Ministry of Manpower (MOM) is the government regulatory body responsible for the enforcement of workplace safety and health legislations. Throughout the years, MOM, in collaboration with other government agencies and stakeholders have put in extensive efforts in achieving significant and sustained improvement in the WSH performance for the construction industry. In this section, various policies and legislations that have been introduced particularly to improve on the safety performance in the construction industry will be discussed. Workplace Safety and Health (WSH) Act In the past, Singapores primary legislation in the construction safety regime was governed by Chapter 104 of the Factories Act and Section 68 and 77 of the Building Operations and Work of Engineering Construction (BOWEC) Regulations (Cheah, 2007). However, due to the spate of high-profile accidents in 2004, MOM saw the need for a fundamental reform of the former safety policies and legislations in order to curb the rising numbers of work-related accidents on site. Hence, as part of the new WSH framework that was introduced in 2006, the Factories Act was repealed and replaced by the Workplace Safety and Health Act on 1 March 2006. As a result, the OSH regulation has evolved from a highly prescriptive (rule-based) system to a more descriptive (performance-based) approach. Unlike the former Factories Act where industry players were expected to comply with a fixed set of safety guidelines, the new WSH Act is focused on three guiding principles reduce risk at source, instil greater ownership of safety and health outcome by industry players, and impose higher penalties for poor safety management. This is a paradigm shift from the former Factories Act because it encourages every industry player to be more proactive rather than reactive to safety issues. Workplace Injury Compensation Act (WICA) The former Workmens Compensation Act has been replaced by the Workplace Injury Compensation Act (WICA), which came into effect on the 1st April 2008. Unlike the former Act which only covers manual and non-manual workers earning $1,600 or less per month, WICA is applicable for all employees regardless of their level of earnings. The enactment of WICA is essential because it safeguards the interest of all employees and employers as the former are now able to claim compensations for work-related injuries promptly without having to prove fault whereas the latter are protected against the fraudulent claims of errant employees (MOM WSHC, 2008). At the same time, this new Act enhances the effectiveness and efficiency of the compensation process and indirectly, influences the employers to pay more attention to workplace safety and health issues. In order for WICA to stay updated with the current market situation, amendments have been to WICA and it will take effect from 1st June 2012. The key objectives of the recent changes are to maintain a fair balance between the pay-outs for the injured employees and the responsibilities that fall on the employers and also, to ensure that the WICA framework remains efficient so that injured employees can receive compensation promptly (MOM, 2012). Some of the major changes include increasing the compensation limits, prohibiting compensation due to work-related fights and work-related exclusion clauses and expanding the scope for compensable diseases. Table 2.5 illustrates the recent amendments to the compensation limits. Safety and Health Management System (SHMS) Safety and Health Management System (SHMS) is a systematic process that is mandatory for all workplaces such as worksite, shipyard and factories in Singapore. It provides a platform for goal setting, performance measurement and clear management commitments and direction in order to manage human and organisational risks (MOM, n.d.-b). SHMS guides the efforts for an effective and proactive implementation of risk control measures to reduce work-related injuries, which will subsequently lead to a long-term reduction in operational costs (Baliyan, 2008). To build up an effective SHMS, it has to adhere to the relevant WSH legislation and guidelines set out for the construction industry, such as the SS 506 Part 1: 2009 Occupational safety and health (OSH) management system and CP 79: 1999 Safety management system for construction worksites. In tandem with the SHMS, audits and reviews must also be carried out periodically on SHMS to ensure its continual performance (MOM, n.d.-a). Table 2.6 s hows the requirements for SHMS audit or review depending on the projects contract sum. To make sure that SHMS is effective and relevant in addressing construction safety, Teo et al. (2005) have developed a model to measure the effectiveness of the SHMS of construction sites in Singapore. Summary of Chapter This chapter has looked into the concept of safety before focusing on workplace health and safety especially in the construction industry. 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(2011). A comparative study on adopting human resource practices for safety management on construction projects in the United States and Singapore. International Journal of Project Management, 29(8), 1018-1032. doi: 10.1016/j.ijproman.2010.11.004 Ling, F. Y. Y., Ofori, G., Teo, A. L. (2004, 2 7 May 2004). Predicting safety levels of constriction project sites. Paper presented at the Proceedings of CIB world Building Congress: Building for the Future, Toronto, Canada. Ling, F. Y. Y., Teo, A. L. (2006). Increasing worksite safety: intrinsic behavior vs. external incentives. Paper presented at the Proceedings of CIB W99 International Conference in Global Unity for Safety Health in Construction, Beijing, China. Lingard, H., Rowlinson, S. (2005). Occupational health and safety in the construction project management. Taylor Francis Inc. Maurice, P., Lavoie, M., Laflamme, L., Svanstrà ¶m, L., Romer, C., Anderson, R. (2001). 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S., Kullberg, A., Timpka, T., Ekman, R., Lindqvist, K. (2004). Making sense of safety. Injury Prevention, 10(2), 71-73. doi: 10.1136/ip.2004.005322 Pearson, C. (n.d.). The history of work safety. eHow. Retrieved from http://www.ehow.com/about_7522903_history-work-safety.html Qi, S. T. H. (2011). Adopting building information modelling (BIM) to improve workers safety. (Unpublished undergraduate dissertation). National University of Singapore, Singapore. Ridley, J. (1976). Safety at work. London: Butterworths. Safe Work Australia (2012). Safe work health and safety statistics, Australia. Retrieved from http://www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/sites/SWA/AboutSafeWorkAustralia/WhatWeDo/Publications/Documents/677/Key_Work_Health_and_Safety_Statistics_Australia_2012.pdf Safe Design Australia (2011). Model work health and safety act revised draft 23. 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Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, 128(3), 203-210. doi: 10.1061/~ASCE!0733-9364~2002!128:3~203! Workplace Safety and Health Committee, WSHC. (2009). WSH 2018 A national strategy for workplace safety and health in Singapore. Retrieved from https://www.wshc.sg/wps/themes/html/upload/cms/file/WSH2018_lowres.pdf Workplace Safety and Health Committee, WSHC. (2010). Implementing WSH 2018 for the construction sector in Singapore. Retrieved from https://www.wshc.sg/wps/themes/html/upload/cms/file/WSH%20Construction%20Sectoral%20final_lowres(1).pdf Workplace Safety and Heath, WSH Ministry of Manpower, MOM. (2011). Workplace safety and health report 2011. Retrieved from https://www.wshc.sg/wps/themes/html/upload/announcement/file/WSH%20Stats%20Report%202011.pdf. World Health Organiation on Community Safety Promotion, Sweden, World Health Organiation on Community Safety Promotion, Quebec World Health Organisation (1998). Safety and safety promotion: Conceptual and operational aspects. Retrieved from http://www.phs.ki.se/csp/pdf/Publications/safety_promotion1998%20.pdf Zhang, S., Teizer, J., Lee, J.-K., Eastman, C. M., Venugopal, M. (2012). Build information modeling (BIM) and safety: Automatic safety checking of construction models and schedules. Automation in Construction, 13. doi: 10.1016/j.autcon.2012.05.006

Roles of the Greek Gods in the Odyssey of Homer

Throughout the epic of The Odyssey of Homer, Odysseus, the main protagonist, receives help, and is frowned upon by the gods. There are many gods, and goddesses who play significant roles in Odysseus’ journey back to his homeland of Ithaca. Athena, the gray-eyed goddess, or the daughter of Zeus, is the most predominant goddess in the epic. One of Athena’s roles is to act as a guardian towards Telemachus. In the beginning, Athena travels to Ithaca in the guise of Mentes, and states to Telemachus, Odysseus’ son, â€Å"I’m Mentes, son of wise Anchialus; the Taphian, tenacious oarsmen are the people I rule†¦.For bright Odysseus has not died upon this Earth: he is alive somewhere, delayed upon an island set among vast waves, held by harsh savages against his will†, (Homer, and Mandelbaum, p. 9-10). Athena is stating that Odysseus, Telemachus’ father is alive, and later on tells Telemachus to â€Å"asks the lord of Ithaca to gather here tomorr ow; then speak to all, and let the gods be witnesses. Command the suitors to scatter, each on his own way†¦Find the fittest ship and, with a crew of twenty oarsmen, seek some word of your long-absent father- for a mortal may have heard word of him†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Homer, and Mandelbaum, p. 2-13). Athena is influencing Telemachus to demand that the suitors leave Odysseus’ halls and that he should set sail in search of word of his father. After Odysseus’ arrival back to Ithaca, Telemachus, who is still in Sparta, is urged to return home by Athena, â€Å"Telemachus, don’t wander from your house too long when you have left behind your wealth, with men so arrogant within your gates†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Homer, and Mandelbaum, p. 295). After hearing the words of Athena, Telemachus chose to return home to Ithaca.Athena also acts as Odysseus’ guardian during his journey home, and even after he had reached his homeland. When Odysseus washes upon the shores of Scheria , he is met by Nausicaa, the daughter of the king of the Phaeacians, who takes him to her father’s halls. Upon departure for town, Athena sent a thick cloud of mist to surround Odysseus to protect him from the Phaeacians. Also, when Odysseus arrives back in his homeland of Ithaca after 11 years of absence, he is transformed into an elderly man by Athena to disguise himself so none of the Ithacans would recognize Odysseus.But during the slaughter of the suitors, Athena reveals Odysseus’ true body, and also makes him look more youthful. Athena, in the guise of Mentor, assists Odysseus, Telemachus, and Eumaes by diverting the arrows, and spears thrown by the suitors during the slaughter. In the end, Athena persuades Odysseus to not resort to violence towards the suitors family members and friend. In the end, Athena’s main role throughout the epic was to act a guardian, and as a guide to both Telemachus, and Odysseus.Zeus, the ruler of all the gods, goddesses, and e verything else, and is the most superior and powerful god out of all. During the epic, Zeus uses his powers to help Odysseus, and also uses them to hinder him. On Odysseus’ journey back home to Ithaca, before he was stranded on Calypso’s isle, he and his crew came upon the land of Thrinacia, the land of Helios. Odysseus and his crew were warned by Circe not to slaughter one single beast, but ignoring Circe’s advice, Odysseus’ crew slaughtered, and prepared the beasts of Thrinacia.This is where Zeus is a hindrance towards Odysseus. Lampetie, a nymph, upon witnessing the slaughter of Helios’s animals, rushed to inform Helios what had occurred. Helios, now infuriated, cried to Zeus, â€Å"You, father Zeus, and all the other blessed and deathless gods-you now must take revenge: destroy the comrades of Laertes’ son, Odysseus; in their insolence they killed the herds that I beheld with such delight†¦If they’re not made to pay a penalt y to match their sin, I shall descend to Hades and shine among the dead† (Homer, and Mandelbaum, p. 249).When Zeus heard this, he sent a dark storm cloud over Odysseus’ ship and Zeus sent a single lightning bolt down to the ship, sparing Odysseus, but killing all of his crew. Odysseus floated on the keel of his ship for ten days until the gods cast him upon Calypso’s coast. But then it was Zeus who sent Hermes, the messenger god, to Ogygia, Calypso’s isle, to release Odysseus. If Zeus wouldn’t have sent the storm cloud that destroyed Odysseus’ ship, Homer wouldn’t have been able to write an epic based on his journey home after being stranded on Calypso’s isle for ten years.That is an example of home Zeus’ role in the epic is extremely important. Poseidon, the god of the sea, also called the â€Å"earth-shaker†, only inflicts harm to Odysseus during his journey home due to an incident on Odysseus’ first trek home to Ithaca. Odysseus and his crew were sailing home from a victory at Troy when they came across the mountaintop home of Polyphemus the Cyclops, Poseidon’s son. Polyphemus trapped Odysseus and his crew, and devoured most of them. To escape Odysseus threw a spear into the eye of the Cyclops, thus blinding him.The next time the blinded Cyclops drove his herds of animals out into the fields, Odysseus and the remainder of his crew snuck out of Polyphemus’ mountaintop home on the bellies of the sheep, and escaped back to their ship. As they were escaping Polyphemus cursed Odysseus and his crew, â€Å"Listen, Poseidon, dark-haired lord who clasps the earth hard fast, if I’m indeed your son and you declare yourself my father, then don’t let this ravager of towns, Odysseus, Laertes son, who lives in Ithaca, return to his own land.But if his fate let him see his dear ones once again and reach his sturdy home, his native land, then let him struggle back- a bat tered man, with all his comrades lost, and on a ship of strangers. In his house, let him meet grief† (Homer, and Mandelbaum, p. 186). Throughout the epic, Poseidon does everything in his power to bring hardship upon Odysseus and his crew. Hermes, the messenger god, and the guide for the souls on their way to Hades, is a minor god in the epic. Hermes is the god in which Zeus sends to Calypso to demand her to free Odysseus.Hermes also appears in the end of the epic when he is leading the shades of the slaughtered suitors to Hades. All in all, the gods and goddesses in The Odyssey of Homer played extremely important roles in the epic. Athena, the most important, acted as a guardian to Telemachus and Odysseus, Zeus was the ruler of all, and changed the way the epic may have turned out, Poseidon inflicted pain, and suffering to Odysseus, and his crew throughout their journey, and Hermes was the messenger. Without the gods, and goddesses in this epic, events throughout the epic may have turned out differently.

Discuss 10 major pieces of legislation, including names, years of passage…

Our society at present is composed mostly of aged individuals who needs long term care. Over the last century, the types of illnesses that had affected the American elderly had begun to change. The most common examples in the elderly today include arthritis (46 percent), hypertension (38 percent), hearing impairments and heart conditions (28 percent each), visual and orthopedic impairments (14 percent each), and diabetes (8 percent). About 80 to 85 percent of those over 65 have at least one chronic condition, and a substantial proportion have more than one such condition (Oktay, 1985).The federal government had passed a number of laws that have directly and indirectly affected the elderly population as it relates to their long-term care. These legislations will be discussed in this paper to demonstrate how relevant it is to the care of the elderly. President Lyndon Baines Johnson signed the Housing Act of 1965 into law in 1965, which was a part of the president’s â€Å"Great Society† program (Listokin and Burchell, n. d). The bill created the program that made subsidies available for low- and moderate-income rental units, and it also authorized the subsidy that fostered home ownership by the poor.The housing needs of inner-city areas were to be met by specially targeted subsidies. The best-known subsidy plan was the Model Cities Program (authorized by the 1966 Demonstration Cities Act), which focused on upgrading the physical (housing, public facilities) as well as the social (education, job training) aspects of inner-city areas. It also recognized the needs of older people for non-institutional congregate housing sites, most of which were age related. There are several programs that provide supportive housing to the frail elderly.The Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) administers the Section 202 program, under which subsidies are provided for the building and managing of rental housing for the elderly (Clark, 1996). This legislatio n offered new services for the elderly to remain in their own homes and be cared for. The Medicare and Medicaid programs were signed into law on July 30, 1965. President Lyndon B. Johnson is pictured at the signing ceremony in Independence, Missouri at the Truman Library (Medicare†¦2006). These are two U. S. government programs that guarantee health insurance for the elderly and the poor, respectively.They were formally enacted in 1965 as Discuss 10 major pieces of legislation, including names, years of passage†¦ Page #2 amendments (Titles XVIII and XIX, respectively) to the Social Security Act (1935) and went into effect in 1966. Medicare is a federal health insurance program with a uniform eligibility and benefit structure throughout the U. S. The program covers most persons entitled to Social Security benefits, persons under age 65 entitled to disability benefits, and some persons with end-stage renal disease (Clark, 1966).Medicare is designed to meet the health care ne eds of acute diseases rather than long-term care. Medicare benefits are provided under two parts: Part A, Hospital Insurance and Part B, Supplementary Medical Insurance. Although most; Medicare recipients receive benefits under fee-for-service arrangements, approximately 10 percent of Medicare beneficiaries are enrolled in managed care plans. Under current law, Medicare home health benefits under either part are targeted at persons recovering from an acute illness.The beneficiary must be homebound and services must be ordered and reviewed periodically by a physician. Medicaid is a federal-state matching entitlement program providing medical assistance to low-income persons who are aged, blind, disabled, members of families with dependent children, or meet certain other criteria for need. Within federal guidelines, each state designs and administers its own program. There is considerable variation from state to state in persons covered, benefits included, and amounts of payment for s ervices.Medicaid finances home- and community-based care under three coverage options: (a) home health care, (b) personal care, and (c) home- and community-based waiver services. Medicaid is more responsive to the long-term care of the elderly than Medicare especially for those who are poor and disadvantaged. President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Older Americans Act into law on July 14, 1965. In addition to creating the Administration on Aging, it authorized grants to States for community planning and services programs, as well as for research, demonstration and training projects in the field of aging.Later amendments to the Act added grants to Area Agencies on Aging for local needs identification, planning, and funding of services, including but not limited to nutrition programs in the community as well as for those who are homebound; programs which serve Native American elders; services targeted at low-income minority elders; health promotion and disease prevention Discuss 10 maj or pieces of legislation, including names, years of passage†¦ Page #3 ctivities; in-home services for frail elders, and those services which protect the rights of older persons such as the long term care ombudsman program (http://www. vec. virginia. gov). This policy was an answer to many of the domestic difficulties of the elderly, it gave them supportive services that has been incorporated in the long-term care program of the elderly. The Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 (ADEA) protects individuals who are 40 years of age or older from employment discrimination based on age. The ADEA's protections apply to both employees and job applicants.Under the ADEA, it is unlawful to discriminate against a person because of his/her age with respect to any term, condition, or privilege of employment, including hiring, firing, promotion, layoff, compensation, benefits, job assignments, and training (The U. S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission). The act was signed into la w by President Lyndon Johnson on December 15, 1967. Through this policy, the employed elderly were protected from unjust employment practices, in relation to long-term care; it gave the elderly earning power and thus could pay for health insurance that would pay for their health care needs.The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) was signed into law by President Bush on July 26, 1990. The central purpose of this Act is to extend to individuals with disabilities civil rights protections similar to those provided to individuals on the basis of race, sex, national origin, and religion. Based on the concepts of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, the ADA guarantees equal opportunity for individuals with disabilities in employment, public accommodation, transportation, state and local government services, and telecommunications.The ADA is the most significant federal law ensuring the full civil rights of all individuals with disabilities (Wodatch, 1990). This policy gave person’s wit h disability the opportunity to become functioning individuals in society, however, The policy is really not that relevant to long–term care, wherein people with mild or moderate disabilities are the only ones who can benefit from this policy since those who need institutional care and long-term care cannot become fully functioning members of society.Signed into law by President Nixon in 1972, the Supplemental Security Income (SSI) program replaced a patchwork of state programs for the aged, blind, and disabled. SSI improves the Discuss 10 major pieces of legislation, including names, years of passage†¦ Page #4 quality of life for persons who are elderly or have a disability by providing financial support, incentives to work, and access to medical care (through Medicaid; enrollment in SSI generally brings with it eligibility for Medicaid).These elements of the program have helped make it possible for poor people who are elderly or have disabilities to gain freedom from d estitution and institutional care (Sweeney and Fremstad, 2005). The policy makes the costs of long-term care more bearable for the elderly and the poor, it however increases the administration of caring and nursing in the home rather than in institutions. On September 26, 1973, President Nixon signed the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 into law. This is a civil rights law to prohibit discrimination on the basis of disability in programs and activities, public and private that receives federal financial assistance.Section 504 states that â€Å"no qualified individual with a disability in the United States shall be excluded from, denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under† any program or activity that either receives Federal financial assistance or is conducted by any Executive agency or the United States Postal Service (Pfeiffer, 2002). This policy was the first to address the need and rights of persons with disabilities but was consequently met with opposition from the general public as it meant giving equal opportunity to persons with disability.The policy increased the demand for rehabilitative services but at that time was limited. Title XX of the Social Security Amendments of 1974 authorized grants to states for social services. These programs included protective services, homemaker services, transportation services, adult day care services, training for employment, information and referral, nutrition assistance, and health support (Oktay, 1985). The funds were distributed to the states according to the size of the population. States were to define the eligible population and design a package of services (many of which were mandated).While Title XX funds were not earmarked for the elderly, there are a number of services, which are targeted primarily to elderly populations, among them, homemaker services. In FY 1982, the Title XX funds were replaced by the Social Services block grant which allowed the states to choose the programs and services that they want to spend on to alleviate the Discuss 10 major pieces of legislation, including names, years of passage†¦ Page #5 conditions of the needy. However, social services for the elderly who can take care of themselves maybe provided.Most states provide homemaker and chore services as well as adult protective and emergency services for their elderly citizens, in order to prevent or reduce inappropriate institutional care (Clark, 1996). On July 1, 1988, President Bush signed into law H. R. 2470, the Medicare Catastrophic Coverage Act of 1988 (MCCA). This law provided the most significant expansion of the Medicare program since its inception. It also contained numerous technical amendments to the Medicare and Medicaid programs, as well as three new Medicaid provisions.However, the following year, the President signed into law Public Law 101-234 that repealed the major expansions of the Medicare program enacted the previous year (Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services). The act expanded Medicare coverage of inpatient hospital care and will also provide payment for outpatient prescription drugs and home i. v. therapy. For the prescription drug benefit, deductible and coinsurance payments will be phased in, and Medicare will establish payment limits. A per diem fee schedule will be established to pay for the supplies and services used in home i. . therapy. Providers of home therapy must have qualifications specified by the act (Grealy, 1989).The policy increased the demand for training of health-care providers that are home-based. It gave the elderly long-term care in their own homes rather than in hospitals or institutional facilities. It also paved the way for the employment boom of caregivers in the country. On July 26, 1990, President George H. W. Bush signed into law the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA) — the world's first comprehensive civil rights law for people with disabilities.The Act prohibits discrimination against people with disabilities in employment, in public services (Title II), in public accommodations and in telecommunications (U. S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission). The policy enforced guidelines that called for states to review the funding they gave to long-term care. It also emphasized the desegregation of the mentally disabled from the rest of society. The act has brought a decrease of admittance to nursing and institutional facilities, and increased the demand for home-based healthcare services.

The Global Financial Crisis ( Gfc ) - 1761 Words

For me the Global Financial crisis (GFC) has been/is quite important because I remember the majority of what happened and is still going i.e. the aftermath of the GFC. However, I have never really looked at GFC from a study purpose point of view. Moreover, although I had followed the crisis in the news I had never really thought about the meaning of the financial terms like Collateralized Debt Obligation (CDO), derivatives and the International Monetary Fund (IMF), just to name few. Therefore, it was quite interesting for me to read the articles for this week’s class. Being from Denmark one of the first things that I remembered was the housing bubble in the U.S. and then I heard about the Icelandic Bank crack and that they had borrowed†¦show more content†¦According to Helleiner, the subprime loans were given to people who did not have enough financial proof i.e. they were not creditworthy and should not have been given the loan, as they could not pay the mortgage back. This then created a ripple effect or spillover effect that spread to the rest of the States that had financial ties with the U.S as well as those States that invested in their mortgage financial products (Helleiner, p. 69). Since my Bachelor degree is from Copenhagen Business School and my bachelor degree is more in the humanities/Business communication combined with European studies i.e. the EU, I had more looked at it from an EU perspective and not really the financial part or the global aspect of the financial crisis. I learned and saw that when the crisis hit Europe, the EU was really being put to a test because all 27 members were connected by the ratified treaties that they were signatory to in order to become an EU member which also meant that the financial burden had to be divided amongst the members. Germany being a very big State had to carry the largest burden and that has begun to put a strain on Germany’s patience (Connolly). Therefore, I found it quite interesting to read about the financial crisis and the background of it i.e. that it goes back to the 1990s in Helleiner’s article Understanding the 2007-2008 Global Financial Crisis. According to Helleiner, Strange warned about the crisis back in 1998